The Endocannabinoid System As An Emerging Target Of Pharmacotherapy Part Two

Jacob Bell · Oct 12, 2011

H. Musculoskeletal Disorders
1. Arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, systemic, inflammatory autoimmune disease affecting ~0.8% of adults worldwide. RA is more common in women, and it leads to joint destruction, deformity, loss of function, chronic pain, and reduced quality of life. When unchecked, it leads to substantial disability and premature death (O'Dell, 2004). Current medications used to treat rheumatoid arthritis are divided into three main classes: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs such as methotrexate (O'Dell, 2004). A better understanding of the cytokine networks that are responsible for the ongoing inflammatory response in RA has led to the successful use of novel therapies that target TNF-α and IL-1.
The immunosuppressant and anti-inflammatory properties of cannabinoids are highly relevant for RA and other autoimmune disorders (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus, autoimmune vasculitis, SjÃ¶gren's syndrome, and ankylosing spondylitis). Indeed, ajulemic acid (THC-11-oic acid, CT-3, IP-751), a potent analog of the acid metabolites of THC (Burstein, 2000, 2005) and cannabidiol have been shown to have analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive effects in animal models of arthritis (Zurier et al., 1998; Dajani et al., 1999; Malfait et al., 2000). Chronic administration of ajulemic acid attenuated joint inflammation in a murine model of adjuvant-induced arthritis and suppressed prostaglandin production in vitro to a greater extent than the potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, indomethacin (Zurier et al., 1998). In another study, ajulemic acid caused less gastrointestinal ulcerations and was more effective in reducing adjuvant-induced arthritis than common nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (Dajani et al., 1999). As discussed earlier in this review, ajulemic acid is a high-affinity agonist for human cannabinoid receptors and has CB1-mediated, potent antihyperalgesic activity in models of chronic neuropathic and inflammatory pain in the rat (Dyson et al., 2005). Ajulemic acid also induces apoptosis in human T lymphocytes (Bidinger et al., 2003) and suppresses IL-1β production in human monocytes (Zurier et al., 2003), which could contribute to its therapeutic effects in RA and other inflammatory disorders. Treatment with cannabidiol or its more potent dimethylheptyl derivative (HU-320) reduced an LPS-induced increase in serum TNF-α and immune function and effectively blocked the progression of collagen-induced arthritis in mice (Malfait et al., 2000; Sumariwalla et al., 2004). Other studies described the antinociceptive effects of anandamide and THC in rats with arthritis (Sofia et al., 1973; Smith et al., 1998; Cox and Welch, 2004). Mbvundula et al. (2005, 2006) have recently reported that WIN 55,212-2 and HU-210 inhibited IL-1-stimulated NO production in bovine articular chondrocytes, in contrast to AM281 and AM630, which elicited an opposite effect. Anandamide, WIN 55212-2, and HU-210 also inhibited the release of sulfated glycosaminoglycans in bovine cartilage explants and IL-1a stimulated proteoglycan and collagen degradation (Mbvundula et al., 2005, 2006).
In a survey of 2969 people using cannabis for medicinal purposes, ~25% of subjects mentioned relief of arthritis symptoms as the main reason for cannabis smoking, which was surpassed only by chronic pain, MS, and depression (Ware et al., 2003). Studies using cannabinoid-based extracts are also underway in patients with RA (Russo, 2006). The potential benefit of cannabinoids in fibromyalgia, a syndrome of widespread musculoskeletal pain, nonrestorative sleep, disturbed mood, and fatigue of unknown etiology, has also been reviewed (Russo, 2004).
2. Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a skeletal disorder characterized by low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration of bone, leading to increased susceptibility to bone fractures. The associated fractures and the subsequent morbidity and mortality make osteoporosis an enormous public health concern. Osteoporosis is no longer considered an age-related disease, as it is increasingly recognized in children. Osteoporosis is thought to be a polygenic disorder, with vulnerability determined by multiple genes and environmental risk factors. It currently affects up to one in three women and 1 in 12 men worldwide (Keen, 2003). Treatment options include general measures on lifestyle, calcium and vitamin D supplements, hormone therapy, raloxifene, and bisphosphonates.
Cannabinoid receptors were first implicated in the regulation of bone mass by Karsak et al. (2004), who found that CB2 knockout mice had markedly accelerated age-related trabecular bone loss and cortical expansion accompanied by increased activity of trabecular osteoblasts, increased numbers of osteoclasts, and decreased numbers of diaphyseal osteoblast precursors (Ofek et al., 2006). CB2 receptors were expressed in osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. The selective CB2 agonist HU-308, but not the CB1 agonist noladine ether, attenuated ovariectomy-induced bone loss and markedly stimulated cortical thickness through the suppression of osteoclast number and stimulation of endocortical bone formation (Ofek et al., 2006). Furthermore, HU-308 dose dependently increased the number and activity of endocortical osteoblasts and restrained trabecular osteoclastogenesis by inhibiting proliferation of osteoclast precursors (Ofek et al., 2006). These results, coupled with CB2 but not CB1 receptor mRNA expression during osteoblastic differentiation, suggested a role for CB2 receptors in bone remodeling. Such a role of CB2 but not CB1 receptors is also supported by a recent genetic association study in human samples of postmenopausal osteoporosis patients and matched female control subjects (Karsak et al., 2005).
In contrast, Idris et al. (2005) have recently reported that CB1 receptor knockout mice or mice treated with antagonists of either CB1 or CB2 receptors were protected from ovariectomy-induced bone loss. Furthermore, cannabinoid antagonists promoted osteoclast apoptosis, inhibited osteoclast activity, and decreased the production of several osteoclast survival factors in vitro, suggesting that cannabinoid antagonists may be beneficial in the treatment of osteoporosis. Although the reason for the discrepancy between the above studies is not clear; they suggest a role for the endocannabinoid system in the regulation of bone mass.
I. Endocannabinoids and Reproductive Functions
There is abundant evidence that the endocannabinoid system is involved in reproductive functions in both males and females and in both animals and humans, as discussed in more detail in recent reviews (Fride, 2004; Park et al., 2004; Schuel and Burkman, 2005; Tranguch et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2006). In males, marijuana, synthetic cannabinoids, and anandamide adversely affect the fertilizing capacity of sperm, which express functional CB1 receptors (Rossato et al., 2005; Schuel and Burkman, 2005; Whan et al., 2006). On the other hand, there is preclinical evidence to suggest that blockade of CB1 may be useful in the treatment of erectile dysfunction (Melis et al., 2004b, 2006).
High levels of functional CB1 receptor, anandamide, and FAAH are present in the preimplantation embryo and/or in the uterus (Das et al., 1995; Paria et al., 1995, 2001; Schmid et al., 1997; Park et al., 2003; Guo et al., 2005). Anandamide synthesized in the uterus exerts dose- and stage-specific effects on embryo development and implantation. A temporary reduction of anandamide levels is essential for embryo implantation, and higher anandamide levels are associated with uterine nonreceptivity and impairment of blastocyst formation, zona hatching, and trophoblast outgrowth via CB1 receptors (Das et al., 1995; Paria et al., 1995, 2001, 2002; Schmid et al., 1997; Wang et al., 1999; Guo et al., 2005). Consequently, cannabinoids may retard the development of embryos, eventually leading to fetal loss and pregnancy failure (Bloch et al., 1978; Smith and Asch, 1987; Park et al., 2004). Anandamide levels in the uterus are regulated by FAAH activity (Paria et al., 1995, 1999; Schmid et al., 1997). Accordingly, pregnant women with low FAAH activity in lymphocytes were found to have an increased incidence of miscarriage (Maccarrone et al., 2000c), and low FAAH activity also correlated with failure to maintain pregnancy after in vitro fertilization (Maccarrone et al., 2002b). Finally, cannabinoids may also affect the levels of various hormones crucial for normal fertility and reproduction (Brown and Dobs, 2002; Park et al., 2004; Scorticati et al., 2004; Gammon et al., 2005). Although such findings may suggest the potential usefulness of CB1 antagonists in the treatment of infertility problems, a note of caution is warranted because CB1 knockout mice were reported to have impaired oviductal transport of embryos, leading to embryo retention. This suggests that treatment with CB1 antagonists may facilitate ectopic pregnancy (Wang et al., 2004).

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IV. Future Directions
The length of this review, necessitated by the steady growth in the number of indications for the potential therapeutic use of cannabinoid-related medications, is a clear sign of the emerging importance of this field. This is further underlined by the quantity of articles in the public database dealing with the biology of cannabinoids, which numbered ~200 to 300/year throughout the 1970s to reach an astonishing 5900 in 2004. The growing interest in the underlying science has been matched by a growth in the number of cannabinoid drugs in pharmaceutical development from two in 1995 to 27 in 2004, with the most actively pursued therapeutic targets being pain, obesity, and multiple sclerosis (Hensen, 2005). As in any rapidly growing area of research, not all the leads will turn out to be useful or even valid. Nevertheless, it is safe to predict that new therapeutic agents that affect the activity of the endocannaboinoid system will emerge and become members of our therapeutic armamentarium. The plant-derived cannabinoid preparation Sativex has already gained regulatory approval in Canada for the treatment of spasticity and pain associated with multiple sclerosis, and the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant has been approved in Europe and is awaiting Food and Drug Administration approval in the United States for the treatment of the metabolic syndrome. Undoubtedly, these will be followed by new and improved compounds aimed at the same or additional targets in the endocannabinoid system. However, it may be only after the widespread therapeutic use of such compounds that some important side effects will emerge. Although this occurrence would be undesirable from a health care perspective, such side effects may shed further light on the biological functions of endocannabinoids in health and disease.
Acknowledgments
We are indebted to Kimberly Bochniak for help with the list of references. P.P. dedicates this review to his beloved mother, Iren.
Work from the authors' laboratory was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health/National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Footnotes
1Abbreviations: THC or Δ9-THC, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol; CP-55,940, (1R,3R,4R)-3-[2-hydroxy-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-4-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexan-1-ol; GPCR, G protein-coupled receptor; CB1 or CB2, cannabinoid 1 or 2; CBD, cannabidiol; SR141716, N-(piperidin-1-yl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboximide hydrochloride (rimonabant); AM251, N-(piperin-1-yl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide; TRPV1 or VR1, transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 or vanilloid 1; WIN 55,212-2, R-(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-[(morpholinyl)methyl]pyrrolo-[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazinyl]-(1-naphthalenyl)methanone mesylate; GTPγS, guanosine 5′-O-(3-thio)triphosphate; HU-210, Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol dimethyl heptyl; DARPP-32, dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa; 2-AG, 2-arachidonoylglycerol; NAPE; N-arachidonoyl phosphatidylethanolamide; PE, phosphatidylethanolamine; PL, phospholipase; DAG, diacylglycerol; FAAH, fatty acid amide hydrolase; UCM707, N-(3-furanylmethyl)-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenamide; LY2318912, 5-(4-azido-3-iodo-benzoylaminomethyl]-tetrazole-1-carboxylic acid dimethylamide; MGL, monoacylglyceride lipase; DSI, depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition; SR144528, N-((1S)-endo-1,3,3-trimethyl bicyclo heptan-2-yl]-5-(4chloro-3-methylphenyl)-1-(4-methylbenzyl)-pyrazole-3-carboxamide); NPY, neuropeptide Y; MCH, melanin concentrating hormone; α-MSH, α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone; CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone; CART, cocaine- and amphetamine-related transcript; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; ACC1, acetyl CoA carboxylase-1; SREBP1c, sterol response element binding protein 1c; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; CNS, central nervous system; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; LPS, lipopolysaccharide or endotoxin; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; IL, interleukin; CXCL, CXC chemokine ligand; NMDA receptor, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor; HU-211, dexanabinol; TBI, traumatic brain injury; BAY 38-7271, (−)-(R)-3-(2-hydroxymethylindanyl-4-oxy)phenyl-4,4,4-trifluoro-1-sulfonate; MCAo, middle cerebral artery occlusion; GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid; GPe or GPi, external or internal globus pallidus; HD, Huntington's disease; HPA axis, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; HU-211, dexanabinol; ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1; IL, interleukin; I/R, ischemia reperfusion; KA, kainic acid; LID, levodopa-induced dyskinesia; methyl-D-aspartate receptor; NO, nitric oxide; PD, Parkinson's disease; LY320135, [6-methoxy-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)benzo-thien-3-yl][4-cyanophenyl] methanone; MS, multiple sclerosis; SCI, spinal cord injury; EAE, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis; JWH-133, 1,1-dimethylbutyl-1-deoxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol; PEA, palmitoylethanolamide; ACEA, arachidonyl-2′-chloroethylamide/(all Z)-N-(2-cycloethyl)-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenamide; JWH-015, (2-methyl-1-propyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenylmethanone; OM-DM1, (R)-N-oleoyl-(1′-hydroxybenzyl)-2′-ethanolamine; OMDM2, (S)-N-oleoyl-(1′-hydroxybenzyl)-2′-ethanolamine; SNr, substantia nigra pars reticulata; LID, levodopa-induced dyskinesia; GPe or GPi, external or internal globus pallidus; HD, Huntington's disease; ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; AM404, N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-eicosa-5,8,11,14-tetraenamide; VDM11, N-(4-hydroxy-2-methylphenyl) arachidonoyl amide; AM374, palmitylsulfonyl fluoride; TS, Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome; AD, Alzheimer's disease; Aβ, β-amyloid; HPA, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal; URB597, cyclohexyl carbamic acid 3′-carbamoyl-biphenyl-3-yl ester; 5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin); VTA, ventral tegmental area; nAc, nucleus accumbens; CPP, conditioned place preference; MDMA, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy); SHR, spontaneously hypertensive rat(s); WKY, Wistar-Kyoto; AM281, N-(morpholin-4-yl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide; AM630, 6-iodo-2-methyl-1-[2-(4-morpholinyl)ethyl]-1-H-indol-3-yl(4-methoxyphenyl)-methanone; IBD, inflammatory bowel disease; PRS-211,092, [(+)-(6aS,10aS)-6,6-dimethyl-3-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)-1-hydroxy-9-(1H-imidazol-2-ylsulfanylmethyl]-6a-,7,10,10a-tetrahydro-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran; RA, rheumatoid arthritis; HU-320, cannabidiol-dimethylheptyl-7-oic acid; HU-308, (+)-(1-aH,3H,5aH)-4-[2,6-dimethoxy-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-6,6-dimethylbicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene-2-carbinol.

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The Endocannabinoid System As An Emerging Target Of Pharmacotherapy Part Two

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